1. Reading
Reading is making meaning from print. It requires that we:
- Identify the words in print – a process called word recognition
- Construct an understanding from them – a process called comprehension
- Coordinate identifying words and making meaning so that reading is automatic and accurate – an achievement called fluency
Sometimes you can identify words without being able to construct much meaning from them. Read the opening lines of Lewis Carroll's poem, "Jabberwocky," and you'll see what I mean.
'Twas brillig, and the slithy tovesFinally, sometimes you can identify words and comprehend them, but if the processes don't come together smoothly, reading will still be a labored process. For example, try reading the following sentence:
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.
It isn't as if the words
are difficult to identify or
understand, but the spaces
make you pause between
words, which means your
reading is less fluent.
Reading in its fullest sense involves weaving together word recognition and comprehension in a fluent manner. These three processes are complex, and each is important. How complex? Here goes?
To develop word recognition, children need to learn:
- How to break apart and manipulate the sounds in words – this is phonemic awareness
example: feet has three sounds: /f/, /e/, and /t/ - Certain letters are used to represent certain sounds – this is the alphabetic principle
example: s and h make the /sh/ sound - How to apply their knowledge of letter-sound relationships to sound out words that are new to them – this is decoding
example: ssssspppoooon – spoon! - How to analyze words and spelling patterns in order to become more efficient at reading words – this is word study
example: Bookworm has two words I know: book and worm. - To expand the number of words they can identify automatically, called their sight vocabulary
example: Oh, I know that word – the!
To develop comprehension, children need to develop:
- Background knowledge about many topics
example: This book is about zoos – that's where lots of animals live. - Extensive oral and print vocabularies
example: Look at my trucks – I have a tractor, and a fire engine, and a bulldozer. - Understandings about how the English language works
example: We say she went home, not she goed home. - Understandings about how print works
example: reading goes from left to right - Knowledge of various kinds of texts
example: I bet they live happily ever after. - Various purposes for reading
example: I want to know what ladybugs eat. - Strategies for constructing meaning from text, and for problem solving when meaning breaks down
example: This isn't making sense. Let me go back and reread it.
To develop fluency, children need to:
- Develop a high level of accuracy in word recognition
- Maintain a rate of reading brisk enough to facilitate comprehension
- Use phrasing and expression so that oral reading sounds like speech
- Transform deliberate strategies for word recognition and comprehension into automatic skills
Therefore, reading also means developing and maintaining the motivation to read. Reading is an active process of constructing meaning?the key word here is active.
To develop and maintain the motivation to read, children need to:
- Appreciate the pleasures of reading
- View reading as a social act, to be shared with others
- See reading as an opportunity to explore their interests
- Read widely for a variety of purposes, from enjoyment to gathering information
- Become comfortable with a variety of different written forms and genres
Below is an example exercise Reading!
1). What did Sany do in the toolshead?
a. got the leader
b. sleep
c. eat
d. Took a bath
e. Took a nap
2). What do yoy call the test?
a. Narrrative
b.Recount
c. Spoof
d. News Item
e. Anecdote
3). How is the condition of the toolsheed?
a. Beautiful
b. Bright
c. Very dark
d. Messy
e. neat
4). What happened in the toolsheed?
a. Tom was felled
b. tom's hand was jammed
c. Tom's head was jammed
d. Tom's ring was dropped
e. Tom's money was lost
5). Why did john look for his ring outside the toolshed?
a. because he wanted to do it
b. because his friend helped him
c. because inside the toolsed is dark
d. because inside the toolshed is hot
e. because he wanted to make iy easy
www.readingrockets.org/article/what-reading
2 Speaking
What speaking is
Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information (Brown, 1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997). Its form and meaning are dependent on the context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking. It is often spontaneous, open-ended, and evolving. However, speech is not always unpredictable. Language functions (or patterns) that tend to recur in certain discourse situations (e.g., declining an invitation or requesting time off from work), can be identified and charted (Burns &Joyce, 1997). For example, when a salesperson asks "May I help you?" the expected discourse sequence includes a statement of need, response to the need, offer of appreciation, acknowledgement of the appreciation, and a leave-taking exchange. Speaking requires that learners not only know how to produce specific points of language such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary (linguistic competence), but also that they understand when, why, and in what ways to produce language (sociolinguistic competence). Finally, speech has its own skills, structures, and conventions different from written language (Burns & Joyce, 1997; Carter & McCarthy, 1995; Cohen, 1996). A good speaker synthesizes this array of skills and knowledge to succeed in a given speech act.What a good speaker does
A speaker's skills and speech habits have an impact on the success of any exchange (Van Duzer, 1997). Speakers must be able to anticipate and then produce the expected patterns of specific discourse situations. They must also manage discrete elements such as turn-taking, rephrasing, providing feedback, or redirecting (Burns & Joyce, 1997). For example, a learner involved in the exchange with the salesperson described previously must know the usual pattern that such an interaction follows and access that knowledge as the exchange progresses. The learner must also choose the correct vocabulary to describe the item sought, rephrase or emphasize words to clarify the description if the clerk does not understand, and use appropriate facial expressions to indicate satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the service. Other skills and knowledge that instruction might address include the following: producing the sounds, stress patterns, rhythmic structures, and intonations of the language; using grammar structures accurately; assessing characteristics of the target audience, including shared knowledge or shared points of reference, status and power relations of participants, interest levels, or differences in perspectives; selecting vocabulary that is understandable and appropriate for the audience, the topic being discussed, and the setting in which the speech act occurs; applying strategies to enhance comprehensibility, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, or checking for listener comprehension; using gestures or body language; and paying attention to the success of the interaction and adjusting components of speech such as vocabulary, rate of speech, and complexity of grammar structures to maximize listener comprehension and involvement (Brown, 1994).Teachers should monitor learners' speech production to determine what skills and knowledge they already have and what areas need development. Bailey and SavageÕs New Ways in Teaching Speaking (1994), and LewisÕs New Ways in Teaching Adults (1997) offer suggestions for activities that can address different skills.
General outline of a speaking lesson
Speaking lessons can follow the usual pattern of preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and extension. The teacher can use the preparation step to establish a context for the speaking task (where, when, why, and with whom it will occur) and to initiate awareness of the speaking skill to be targeted (asking for clarification, stressing key words, using reduced forms of words). In presentation, the teacher can provide learners with a preproduction model that furthers learner comprehension and helps them become more attentive observers of language use. Practice involves learners in reproducing the targeted structure, usually in a controlled or highly supported manner. Evaluation involves directing attention to the skill being examined and asking learners to monitor and assess their own progress. Finally, extension consists of activities that ask learners to use the strategy or skill in a different context or authentic communicative situation, or to integrate use of the new skill or strategy with previously acquired ones (Brown, 1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997; Carter & McCarthy, 1995).| Example of a speaking lesson: Choosing appropriate topics for small talk |
| 1. Preparation. Show the learners a picture of two people conversing in a familiar casual setting. (The setting will be determined by a prior needs assessment.) Ask them to brainstorm what the people might be discussing (i.e., what topics, vocabulary, typical phrases). |
| 2. Presentation. Present several video clips of small talk in casual situations. Have learners complete a worksheet in which they describe or list the topics discussed, the context in which the speech is occurring, and any phrases that seem to typify small talk. Follow up with a discussion of the kinds of topics that are appropriate for small talk, the factors in the specific situations that affect topic selection (e.g., relationships of participants, physical setting), and typical phrases used in small talk. Chart this information. |
| 3. Practice. Give learners specific information about the participants and the setting of a scenario where small talk will take place. In pairs, have them list topics that might be discussed by the participants and simple phrases they might use. Learners then engage in improvised dialogues based on these simple phrases. |
| 4. Evaluation. Give pairs a teacher-prepared dialogue based on their scenario from š. Ask them to compare their improvised dialogues with the prepared dialogue, analyzing the similarities, differences, and reasons for both. |
| 5. Extension. Have learners go individually or in small groups into various contexts in the community (work, school, church, bus stop) and record the conversations they hear. Ask them to report their findings back to the class, and then have the class discuss these findings. |
In-class speaking task
Although dialogues and conversations are the most obvious and most often used speaking activities in language classrooms, a teacher can select activities from a variety of tasks. Brown (1994) lists six possible task categories:- Imitative-
- Drills in which the learner simply repeats a phrase or structure (e.g., "Excuse me." or "Can you help me?") for clarity and accuracy;
- Intensive-
- Drills or repetitions focusing on specific phonological or grammatical points, such as minimal pairs or repetition of a series of imperative sentences;
- Responsive-
- Short replies to teacher or learner questions or comments, such as a series of answers to yes/no questions;
- Transactional-
- Dialogues conducted for the purpose of information exchange, such as information-gathering interviews, role plays, or debates;
- Interpersonal-
- Dialogues to establish or maintain social relationships, such as personal interviews or casual conversation role plays; and
- Extensive
- - Extended monologues such as short speeches, oral reports, or oral summaries.
When presenting tasks, teachers should tell learners about the language function to be produced in the task and the real context(s) in which it usually occurs. They should provide opportunities for interactive practice and build upon previous instruction as necessary (Burns & Joyce, 1997). Teachers should also be careful not to overload a speaking lesson with other new material such as numerous vocabulary or grammatical structures. This can distract learners from the primary speaking goals of the lesson.
Assessing speaking
Speaking assessments can take many forms, from oral sections of standardized tests such as the Basic English Skills Test (BEST) or the English as a Second Language Oral Assessment (ESLOA) to authentic assessments such as progress checklists, analysis of taped speech samples, or anecdotal records of speech in classroom interactions. Assessment instruments should reflect instruction and be incorporated from the beginning stages of lesson plannhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeninging (O'Malley & Pierce, 1996). For example, if a lesson focuses on producing and recognizing signals for turn-taking in a group discussion, the assessment tool might be a checklist to be completed by the teacher or learners in the course of the learners' participation in the discussion. Finally, criteria should be clearly defined and understandable to both the teacher and the learners.Conclusion
Speaking is key to communication. By considering what good speakers do, what speaking tasks can be used in class, and what specific needs learners report, teachers can help learners improve their speaking and overall oral competency.https://www.englishclub.com/speaking/what-is-speaking.htm Listening
Listening is a broad term used to refer to complex affective, cognitive, and behavioral processes.[1] Affective processes include the motivation to attend to others; cognitive processes include attending to, understanding, receiving, and interpreting content and relational messages; and behavioural processes include responding with verbal and nonverbal feedback.
Listening differs from obeying. Parents may commonly conflate the two, by telling a disobedient child that he "didn't listen to me". A person who receives and understands information or an instruction, and then chooses not to comply with it or to agree to it, has listened to the speaker, even though the result is not what the speaker wanted.[2] Listening is a term in which the listener listens to the one who produced the sound to be listened.
Barthes
Semiotician Roland Barthes characterized the distinction between listening and hearing as "Hearing is a physiological phenomenon; listening is a psychological act." [3] Hearing is always occurring, most of the time subconsciously. In contrast, listening is the interpretative action taken by the listener in order to understand and potentially make meaning out of the sound waves. Listening can be understood on three levels: alerting, deciphering, and an understanding of how the sound is produced and how the sound affects the listener.[4]Alerting, the first level, does nothing to distinguish human from animal. At the alerting level one merely picks up on certain environmental sound cues. While discussing this level, Barthes mentions the idea of territory being demarcated by sounds. This is best explained using the example of one's home. One's home, for instance, has certain sounds associated with it that make it familiar and comfortable. An intrusion sound (e.g. a squeaking door or floorboard, a breaking window) alerts the dweller of the home to the potential danger.
In a metaphorical way, deciphering, the second level, is to listening what digestion is to eating. An example of this level is that of a child waiting for the sound of his mother's return home. In this scenario the child is waiting to pick up on sound cues (e.g. jingling keys, the turn of the doorknob, etc.) that will mark his mother's approach.
Understanding, the third level of listening, means knowing how what one says will affect another. This sort of listening is important in psychoanalysis. Barthes states that the psychoanalyst must turn off their judgement while listening to the analysand in order to communicate with their patient's unconscious in an unbiased fashion.
However, in contrast to the distinct levels of listening listed above, it must be understood that they all function within the same plane, and sometimes all at once. Specifically the second and third levels, which overlap vastly, can be intertwined in that obtaining, understanding and deriving meaning are part of the same process. In that the child, upon hearing the doorknob turn (obtaining), can almost automatically assume that someone is at the door (deriving meaning).
In language learning
Along with speaking, reading, and writing, listening is one of the "four skills" of language learning. All language teaching approaches except for grammar-translation incorporate a listening component.[5] Some teaching methods, such as Total Physical Response, involve students simply listening and responding.[6]A distinction is often made between "intensive listening", in which learners attempt to listen with maximum accuracy to a relatively brief sequence of speech, and "extensive listening", in which learners listen to lengthy passages for general comprehension. While intensive listening may be more effective in terms of developing specific aspects of listening ability, extensive listening is more effective in building fluency and maintaining learner motivation.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listening
4. Writting
Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language and emotion with signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a complement to speech or spoken language. Writing is not a language, but a tool developed by human society. Within a language system, writing relies on many of the same structures as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar, and semantics, with the added dependency of a system of signs or symbols. The result of writing is called text, and the recipient of text is called a reader. Motivations for writing include publication, storytelling, correspondence and diary. Writing has been instrumental in keeping history, maintaining culture, dissemination of knowledge through the media and the formation of legal systems.
As human societies emerged, the development of writing was driven by pragmatic exigencies such as exchanging information, maintaining financial accounts, codifying laws and recording history. Around the 4th millennium BCE, the complexity of trade and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form.[1] In both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica, writing may have evolved through calendric and a political necessity for recording historical and environmental events.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing
5. Grammar
Grammar
is the way in which words are put together to form proper sentences. Do
you want a quick answer to a specific point, such as whether it's wrong
to split an infinitive or to end a sentence with a preposition such as on? If so, go straight to our quick-reference grammar tips section.
If you want more detailed advice on, for example, types of pronouns or how to build well-formed sentences, browse through the headings below and explore the different sections:
If you want more detailed advice on, for example, types of pronouns or how to build well-formed sentences, browse through the headings below and explore the different sections:
Grammar tips
From dangling participles to split infinitives to double negatives, here are straightforward answers to all the grammar questions you’ve been asking.
Punctuation
From commas to semicolons, via question marks and bullet points, punctuation is a vital part of writing. But why do we need it, and how should it be used?
Spelling
Spelling matters. Whether you’re trying to avoid common misspellings or uncertain how to form adverbs, this section will help you become a spelling expert.
Usage
Affect or effect? Complement or compliment? Imply or infer? Its or it’s? This section will help you avoid the most common mistakes in language usage.
Word classes
Do you know how many parts of speech there are in English, and how to use all of them? Find out with our guide to English word classes.
Writing help
This section gives guidelines on writing in everyday situations, from applying for a job to composing letters of complaint or making an insurance claim.
Grammar A–Z
Some grammatical terms are familiar, but others can be hard to remember: our glossary is a handy guide to all the grammar terminology you need.
menuGrammar
Grammar is the way in which words are put together to form proper sentences. Do you want a quick answer to a specific point, such as whether it's wrong to split an infinitive or to end a sentence with a preposition such as on? If so, go straight to our quick-reference grammar tips section.If you want more detailed advice on, for example, types of pronouns or how to build well-formed sentences, browse through the headings below and explore the different sections:
Grammar tips
From dangling participles to split infinitives to double negatives, here are straightforward answers to all the grammar questions you’ve been asking.
Punctuation
From commas to semicolons, via question marks and bullet points, punctuation is a vital part of writing. But why do we need it, and how should it be used?
Spelling
Spelling matters. Whether you’re trying to avoid common misspellings or uncertain how to form adverbs, this section will help you become a spelling expert.
Usage
Affect or effect? Complement or compliment? Imply or infer? Its or it’s? This section will help you avoid the most common mistakes in language usage.
Word classes
Do you know how many parts of speech there are in English, and how to use all of them? Find out with our guide to English word classes.
Writing help
This section gives guidelines on writing in everyday situations, from applying for a job to composing letters of complaint or making an insurance claim.
6. Vocabulary
Vocabulary is all about words — the words in a language or a special set of words you are trying to learn. Vocabulary is so important, we even created a web site to help expand yours.
First used in the 1500s to mean a list of words with explanations, the noun vocabulary
came to refer to the “range of language of a person or group” about two
hundred years later. A lot of hobbies, like fishing or knitting,
require that you learn their unique vocabulary before you can get the
most out of them. If you're in a rush, vocab is a faster way to say vocabulary.
Think you know vocabulary? Quiz yourself:
Definitions of vocabulary
1
n the system of techniques or symbols serving as a means of expression (as in arts or crafts)
“he introduced a wide
vocabulary of techniques”
- Type of:
-
frame, frame of reference
a system of assumptions and standards that sanction behavior and give it meaninghttps://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/vocabulary
